Origin of OSI Model Essay Example for Free

Origin of OSI Model Essay Much of the work on the design of OSI was done by a group at Honeywell Information Systems, headed by Mike Canepa, with Charlie Bachman as the principal technical member. This group was organized within Honeywell, with advanced product planning and with the design and development of prototype systems. In the early and mid 1970s, the interest of Canepas group was mainly on database design and then distributed database design. By the mid-1970s, it become clear that to support database machines, distributed access, and the like, a structured distributed communications architecture would be needed. The group studied some of the existing solutions, including IBMs system network architecture (SNA), the work on protocols being done for ARPANET, and some of the concepts of presentation services being developed for standardized database systems. The result of this effort was the development by 1977 of a seven-layer architecture known as the distributed systems architecture (DSA). Bachman and Canepa participated in ANSI meetings and presented their seven-layer model. This model was chosen as the only proposal to be submitted to the ISO subcommittee. When the ISO group met in Washington DC in March of 78, the Honeywell team presented their solution. An agreement was reached at that meeting that this layered architecture would satisfy most requirements of OSI, and had the ability to be expanded later to meet new requirements. A provisional version of the model was published in March of 78. The next version, with some minor adjustments, was published in June of 1979 and eventually standardized. The resulting OSI model is essentially the same as the DSA model developed in 1977.

The effect of temperature in catalyse activity Essay Example for Free

The effect of temperature in catalyse activity Essay Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts. They are made in cells. A catalyst is something that speeds up a reaction, but does not get used up in the reaction. One can usually be used many times. An example of this is shown in the following diagram: Prediction and Scientific Knowledge I predict, that if I have a higher enzyme concentration, then this will cause a higher rate of catalyse activity, because there will be more active places for a reaction to take place, which will cause more chemical reactions because of successful collisions because of the active site of the enzyme and substrate. The collision theory states that molecules must collide with sufficient energy (activation energy) if a reaction is to take place. As temperature increases more molecules gain this activation energy, hence more collisions occur per second, so the rate increases. This is what will happen in my experiment. The product will be the carbon dioxide produced. I believe the rate of reaction will be at its peak when used in conjunction with water at a temperature of 40? C, because if the temperature exceeds this then the enzyme is also not efficient due to the lock and key hypothesis, which states, when an enzyme gets to a certain temperature, it denatures and cannot function properly. Apparatus The apparatus I will be required to use in this experiment are a: Conical Flask (plus cork) Measuring cylinder (Cylindrical) Borer Delivery tube Water Water bath (room temperature, 30? C, 40? C, 50? C and 60? C) Knife White tile Ruler Variables Stop watch Bung The variables used in this experiment will be: The varying temperature of the water The volume of H2O2 The amount of Potato (for this experiment we used #cm as if we used a certain weight rather than length, the surface area would be different for each piece, so therefore making the test unfair. The shape of the potato (again to do with the surface area) The time of the reaction so as to gain the correct readings from each test. Apparatus and Diagram Method Firstly we gathered together the above apparatus and set up the experiment as shown in the diagram. We would use 2, 3cm size pieces of potato for each test tube and carry out each individual test 3 times and gain an average reading. The tests would involve testing the reactivity with 5 different water temperatures, these temperatures: Room temperature, 30? C, 40? C, 50? C, 60? C We decided with the experiment that we would time the reaction for 1 minute and then note down the reading of oxygen (O2) produced. To insure that the temperatures were at their exact point and to make sire the we stable, we used water baths, which heat the water to the exact temperature and keep the temperature constant, as to make the test a fair one. As with all experiments, we had to be aware of safety, for a number of reasons: We were using a knife to cut up the potatoes, which, when being used wrongly could lead to injury. H2O2 is a corrosive substance, so we had to be careful that we did not come in direct physical contact with it (i. e. spill it on our skin) and finally, We were using a water of high temperature (50 and 60) so had to be careful not to burn ourselves. Table of Results Temperature (? C) Test 1 (O2 produced in cmi ) Test 2 (O2 produced in cmi ) Test 3 (O2 produced in cmi ) Average (cmi ) 20. 0 (room temp) 1. 20 0. 80 0. 90 0. 96 30. 0 1. 40 1. 80 2. 00 1. 73 40. 0 2. 40 2. 60 3. 10 2. 70 50. 0 1. 80 2. 00 1. 50 1. 76 60. 0 0. 07 0. 09 0. 10 0. 086 Summary of Results You can see from the results, the reaction rate slowly increases as it goes from 20 to 40 and at 50 it has begun to denature, but by 60 the enzymes have completely denatured and the reaction is very small. Conclusion The scientific knowledge we gathered during our theoretical side of the experiment proved to create results that we easily distinguishable when plotted against what we had predicted to find. For example, the lock and key hypothesis states that once an enzyme has reached a certain temperature beyond its optimum, it becomes denatured and cannot function properly as a catalyst and therefore not speed up the reaction. The collision theory also comes into the experiment, as with a greater volume of H2O2 the experiment rate of reaction would increase. This is due to the fact that with a greater volume, there will be more successful collisions between both reactants. To conclude the practical experiment, we found that due to the enzymes being biological, they denature once they reach a certain high degrees, and we found the reaction decreased severely between 40 and 60. This suggests that the enzymes began to denature somewhere before 50. We also found that the results reflected the theoretical calculations we had made earlier (i. e. the collision theory: Rate = Change in Volume/Time) This also suggests that if we used a greater volume of H2O2 then the rate of reaction would speed up (e. g. in this experiment the rate of reaction was directly proportional to the rate of reaction. ) Evaluation The aim of our experiment was to see whether temperature has an effect on catalyse activity, from my results we can see that it does. The procedure of this experiment was fairly straight forward and was carried out correctly though there were certain things that complicated the practical side of it. The quality of the data we obtained was if not perfect, close to correct as it approximately fitted with our theoretical predictions that after 40 the enzymes would begin to denature and by 60 they would be completely ineffective in the reaction. With most experiments like this one, there are always going to be certain factors that either arent carried out properly or are not going to work quite as they should in a classroom atmosphere, as it is far different from a scientific lab, but I feel that the experiment was suitable and we received good, accurate results. There are a few improvements that could be made to improve the fairness and accuracy of the experiment. For example: Use either a more accurate water bath, or other device that can heat to a certain temperature and keep that temperature at a constant level. And Use a more accurate instrument (rather than a knife and ruler) to cut out the potatoes to insure they are all of exactly the same length and surface area, to keep the test fair. Another thing I would have done is use a pureed potato instead of using a potato cylinder like I did. This is because it would give more active sites for a reaction to take place.

Problems with air pollution in Manila

Problems with air pollution in Manila In Manila there are a lot of problems with air pollution, hygiene practices and the lack of good sanitation. These are the most important hygiene and health related risks in the Philippines. One-sixth of all deaths in the Philippines and approximately 6,000 premature deaths a year are because of hygiene, water-borne diseases and poor sanitation conditions. Diarrhea is the most common water-borne disease, then intestinal worms, typhoid, and cholera. These diseases are very common because more than 25 million Filipinos do not have a basic access to sanitation and more than 13 million do not have proper water resources. Thanks to the water pollution the costs increases, which led to more than 6.7 billion in 2006. Air pollution makes this even worse, and therefore it is another big issue. The most common diseases are chronic bronchitis, pneumonia and cardiovascular diseases. And this is not going away soon, the city has a lot of factors which increases this. Like the smoke the vehicles leave behind, but also something small like tobacco smoke. The people who clean the city, which are more than 18 million people, are the biggest victims of this air pollution All the costs of treatment and lost income, due to air pollution, is more than 7.6 billion per year. Although there have been some improvements in alleviating diseases from the lack of hygiene and air pollution, which is thanks the governments more pro-active attempt for the environmental role in health, it is still a major problem. There should be more easy-to-access information on different methods and also more improvements in health infrastructure, such as good sanitation facilities and a healthy water resource to prevent health risks from water pollution. The government is now busy with discouraging people to use vehicles with high smoke emissions. Which is a big factor in air pollutions Quick Facts 2005 Population growth (annual %) 1.87 Population, total (millions) 85.50 Life expectancy at birth, total (years) 71.05 Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) 27.50 GNI (current US$) (millions) 98535 GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) 1160.0 Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population ages 15-49) . These are the Ten Leading Causes of Illness in the Philippines 1. Acute Lower RTI and Pneumonia 2. Bronchitis/ Bronchiolitis 3. Acute Watery Diarrhea. Influenza 5. Hypertension 6. TB Respiratory 7. Pneumonia 8. Diseases of the Heart 9. Malaria 10.Dengue Fever The most common diseases: degree of risk: high food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever vectorborne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, and Japanese encephalitis water contact disease: leptospirosis Of these diseases almost all of them are caused by the hygiene. Habitat A lot of conflicts are also because of their habitat, and what they are seen like. Because people cannot get easy higher up. The biggest one and the most known one is the Payatas The poorest families live on the Filipinos and collect trash of the dump. One of the dump places is Payatas, on the edge of Manilla. Where 4500 ton waste is dumped every day. More than 30.000 people, also children, live on this dump. Through day and night trucks are coming in and out with lots of garbage. This garbage consists of (operation) waste, from hospitals. It is not difficult to conclude that a lot of people get sick because of all the bacteria and germs that are produced by the garbage. Because of all the garbage that is dumped, the hill keeps getting bigger and bigger. This happens through the chemical processes who are caused by the scalding and joining together of substances. Around the dump there is a big haze which you can see on a very large distance. For most of the inhabitants of the Payates there is no other option than to work on the dump. More than 400 families collect garbage to support their family. Children from already a young age help with collection plastic, empty cans and other stuff which helps to produce some money. In short Payatas means a big hill with stinking garbage and a source for the incomes of hundreds of families Sanitation More than 2.6 billion people in the world have one thing in common, which is; they do not have good access to basic sanitation. Worldwide, there are about 1.7 million deaths a year, with 90% of them being children, who died mainly through infectious diarrhea. Which was caused by unsafe water, poor sanitation and hygiene. 1.5 million children a year could be saved by access to sanitation, good hygiene and a safe water supply A good sanitation will reduce children illnesses and so increase primary school enrolment, because children will not miss as much as used to be. Also it will increase the productivity among adults, it will provide more safety for women and also reduce the pollution of water resources. Fortunately it is increasing, in only 14 years more than 1 billion people have received access to sanitation. Sanitation and wastewater commitments have effectively tripled since 1990 and after that nearly doubled since 2002. Less than half of the Latin American countries are on track to double the rate of sanitation provision. Poor sanitation is responsible for at least 9 billion in losses per year in Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam combined. Sanitation is a neglected aspect of development in countries, the money going to this is minor. If you look to the economic impacts of poor sanitation, and the potential gains from improved sanitation, than the investments in sanitation should be very helpful for everyone The most disastrous impact of poor sanitation is an increased risk of infectious diseases and premature death, declaring for more than 4.8 billion annually. Poor sanitation also contributes enormously to water pollution, adding to the costs of safe freshwater for homes, and increasing the production of fish in lakes and rivers. Garbage and streets Garbage  is a big problem for the communities in Manila. In the past years, Smokey Mountain, once a smoking mountain of garbage, which was Manilas monument to one of the citys most continuously problems; trash. But through years of effort, Smokey Mountain has been increased to a big hill. Still the problem goes on: What to do with the amount of garbage produced by more than 10 million residents of Manila every. In Dagat-Dagatan, Navotas, a group of women has taken the matter, of the communitys garbage, into their own hands through the Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program (MEIP). The MEIP is a regional program for Asia with the costs provided by the United Nations Development Program and the World Bank as collaboration partner. Through the funding received by the local Dagat-Dagatan Polymedic Medical Foundation, the women of the Dagat-Dagatan community established a community centre; the Zero Kalat sa Kaunlaran (Zero Waste for Progress), which is turning the garbage of their neighbourhoods into cash and opportunity. To eliminate the extausion of diseases, the foundation launched a program within the community to spread ecological waste management, set up a recycling system and a redemption centre, and continue with the maintenance of sanitation and hygiene in every household. The women, who are called volunteers but are actually members of a co-op. They first collect all the garbage, then sort it out at the community centre, and recycle almost all of it. Their recycling efforts take many forms. Some of the refuse is used in woven baskets and handbags, which the women sell for profit. But also some is sold to scrap metal dealers and to companies that recycle plastics and corrugated cardboard. The effort is actually more than a business for these women. They come together in the morning and exercise before starting the work of that day. They chat as they wash the water bottles and chat when they are on their way to the recycler. They have planted flowers and grass around the community and next year they will begin composting the scraps and clippings they collect to produce another marketable product. A women had admitted that this centre has changed her life. I was fascinated to see how the women managed to make money out of what people throw away, said Mats Karlsson, World Bank vice president for External Affairs and UN Affairs, who was visiting the women at the redemption centre. Karlsson, who was in the Philippines for the current Manila Social Forum, took some time visiting nearby projects. I was especially impressed by their motto: Kung hindi tayo, sino? which means in english, If not us, then who?' Drinking water Bottled water has established a major foothold in the Philippines. In some places, there are no piped-water systems; in others, people are not sure about biological contaminants, taste, odor, and the disinfection by-products from the chlorination process. Even in the Manila, only about 75% of the population receives piped water from the municipal authority. Outside Manila even fewer people have access to healthy water distribution. In both locations, these people must find alternative water sources if they want to avoid cholera epidemics and other health problems caused by the only water that is available in their neighborhoods. There is already a solution appearing, and now happening in thousands of water refilling. The shops began as private community sources, where consumers went with their containers to fill them up for a per-gallon fee, which was a small part of commercially bottled water costs. Most stores deliver home for regular customers nowadays. Most of those shops produce between 3,000 and 12,000 liters of water per day. Everything of the supply comes from the pipes of municipal concessionaires. The executives invests in treatment equipment and further purify their product before they sale it. Other shops are likely supplied by unauthorized or illegal diggings. A production of these private sources could have damaging effects on the groundwater reserves and will lead to contamination. The government has accepted private water shops, because of the increasing of waterborne diseases, but they do monitor their quality control practices and final product as much as they can. However, it is difficult to continuously keep an eye on the entire industry, given the large number of shops. Although many people in the Philippines benefit from the availability of water shops, the system does not really account the long-term water delivery and sanitation infrastructure improvements, which are necessary to provide reliable water to everyone. A lot of people do not live near a source of water. Distribution systems take the water from a source and deliver it to people who use it. They use different distribution systems which are depending on the needs of the people and the amount of infrastructure available. All of these systems have a risk of contaminating water when it is not handled properly. Every system has a cost involved to bring safe and reliable water to people. HouseholdpService In the larger cities of the world, it is standard that there is water pumped from a natural source, which is treated in a water treatment plant, stored for use in water storage tanks and then piped directly into every household. The cost of household service, which is the delivery, treatment for this water, but also the upkeep of this system is usually paid by its consumers. If the infrastructure is not maintained good, household service can become unreliable and result as possibly unsafe. WaterjSupply by Vehicle In a lot of areas, the plumbing in households is unreliable or non-existent. In these areas other distribution systems are developing. For instance in the Mexico City are, more than 2 million people live to far from piped distribution systems. For these people, water trucks transport water from the piped distribution systems directly to their home. Those water trucks can also be used to combat when there is natural disaster or a temporary water crises caused by war. BottledlWater and Water Refilling Stations Bottled water or water refilling stations are used in many areas where people have no access to clean water. In the Philippines, clean water is sold at water refilling stations throughout the whole country. At these stations, consumers may bring their own containers with them, to carry the water back home. The poor are the ones that are the most depending on vehicle delivery, bottled water, and water refilling stations. Unfortunately, the poor also need to pay the highest price for the water that is being delivered by such methods. CentrallCommunity Source In the rural areas almost no household infrastructure exists, so the communities dig wells and bore holes, and then they can pump groundwater to a central location in the community. From these central community sources, consumers collect water themselves and bring it back home for treatment and then use. In rural Niger, solar pumps and hand pumps were installed by the international aid organizations at central locations within villages. These pumps provide easier access to clean water without having to dig up water from traditional wells. These water stations are used by the community and also, in most cases, maintained and controlled by the community. Individual WaterlTransport Most people, especially in the rural areas of developing countries, have to walk to a lake, river, or other water sources and put the water in containers. This water is brought back home and, but needs treatment before use. In comparison to other methods, this distribution system is the simplest solution . But it does involves costs. Water gatherers, women and children are spending hours each day being busy with this basic chore. This responsibility leaves them to little time for good schooling, earning any income, crowing food, or any other things that will help them live without poverty. It does not matter on which location the distribution systems are they need to have some form of infrastructure that must be maintained to keep the water safe and healthy. And while all distribution systems involve costs, somelcosts can be more expensive than others. STIs What is a STI? STI is the abbreviation of sexually transmitted infection. STIs are contagious, and it is possible an infected person has not noticed yet before passing the infection on to its sexual partner without noticing. Luckily, serious consequences can be prevented when the victim is treated in time. Some examples of STIs are HIV (the virus that can cause AIDS), chlamydia, genital warts, genital herpes, gonorrhoea, hepatitis B, and syphilis. STIs can be transmitted through infected sperm and vaginal fluid. Second, people can also get an STI through infected blood, for example due to unhygienic tattooing and piercing, unhygienic needles etc. with using drugs, and babies can be infected during the pregnancy or birth. Third, STIs can be transmitted due to the contact between mucous membranes (in the rectum, penis, vagina, and mouth). And last, and probably best known, unprotected sex is dangerous because of an easy transmission of STIs. There are some myths about the transmission of STIs. So lets get rid of them forever. STIs cannot be transmitted through drinking out of another persons cup, someones cough, insect bites, a dirty toilet seat, and in a swimming pool. HIV/AIDS Since the start of 2009 every month approximately 60 Filipinos are diagnosed as an HIV positive. But this rose sharply to 126 cases in December. If this will not stop, the number will increase rapidly. And in three years the number of people in the Philippines with HIV/AIDS will be 30,000. In January 2010 143 people were diagnosed with HIV in the Philippines. This was the highest number reported since the disease first appeared in the country, in 1984. Most of the cases in January were males, who were infected by sexual contact with men. Since 1984 the Philippines has had 4,424 cases of HIV reported, of these cases 832 have been developed into full-blown AIDS and 314 deaths had been reported. Also among children the HIV infection is increasing as never before. The infection among 15-24 year old Filipinos has increased with five times, from 41 in 2007 to 218.

Nuclear Waste Essay -- Ocean Dumping Environmental Essays

Nuclear Waste Introduction The Earth's oceans cover approximately three-fourths of the world's surface. Less than one century ago, it would have been difficult to imagine that humans could significantly pollute these vast bodies of water. For as long as there have been human inhabitants along the coast, people have been utilizing the ocean as a dumping ground for garbage and other rubbish. Although several view the ocean as endless and thus, having plenty of room for the waste; this belief is not true. The ocean can not accommodate dumpings without being permanently damaged. Furthermore, the immense technological revolution of the last century has increased society's ability to cause greater damage to the world's oceans. Nuclear Industry The development of nuclear industry has been a cornerstone for the world's technological revolution. Since the discovery of fission more than a half century ago, nuclear power has become a major source of the world's electricity supply. By 1989, 416 nuclear power plants were in operation, thus providing approximately seventeen percent of the world's electricity (Waczewski, 1997). With more than one hundred nuclear operating plants, the United States easily gains the title as having the world's largest nuclear energy program. Radioactive Waste However, utilizing nuclear power has several implications. One of the most severe is that nuclear technology produces a great amount of toxic waste that remains radioactive for thousands of years. Thus, the waste must be disposed of in a safe manner so to avoid the contamination of future generations. Ocean Dumping Regulation The government's Ocean Dumping Regulation of 1989 severely limits what can be disposed of in the oceans. The... ...her damage that can be caused by nuclear waste. One possible solution is to further research the recycling of radioactive materials. In the United States, research in this area of nuclear waste recycling has not been tested to its greatest potential. Conclusion The relationship between the ocean and nuclear waste will continue for thousands of years. This is due to the vast quantities of radioactive waste that has already been dumped into the ocean. However, it is our responsibility to protect the environment and to ensure the Earth for future generations. Nuclear recycling is a plausible solution and it is not too late to expedite the research in this area. References Trudeau, Rebecca, The Ocean Dumping Act; University of Florida,1994. Waczewski, James, Legal, Political, and Scientific Response to Ocean Dumping, Florida State University, 1997.

Film Techniques in Whats Eating Gilbert Grape Essay examples -- essay

"What's Eating Gilbert Grape?" Film Techniques related to theme Theme: Struggle and Hardship In the film "What's Eating Gilbert Grape?" directed by Lasse Hallstrom in 1993, one of the main ideas is that of struggle and hardship. This idea is significant to the film because it relates to each character in a different way, making the storyline more interesting. Three different techniques used by Lasse Hallstrom to illustrate the idea of struggle and hardship include Gilberts voice over, the extra close-ups of Bonnie as she climbs the stairs and the double up of dialogue, where Mrs Carver is talking to Gilbert, and Mr Carver is heard tying to entertain their children in background. One character that suffers from struggle and hardship is Gilbert. At the beginning of the film, just after the opening scene, there are a series of establishing shots of Endora. They display the town as a dead, empty place, and are accompanied by a voice over done by Gilbert Grape. Gilbert describes each shop and his house with a dreary, dull tone and a lack of enthusiasm. This indicates to the audien...

Banning Cigarettes Essay -- essays research papers fc

Each year, the U.S. government passes numerous laws to protect its citizens. Yet, one perfectly legal product manages to seize over 400,000 American lives annually (American Lung Association, "American"). Despite the efforts of the U.S. government to protect its citizens, the government continues to ignore the single most preventable cause of premature deaths. The vicious culprit attributed to these deaths is the common cigarette. Death, however, is not the only transgression cigarettes are responsible for. Cigarettes pose a clear threat to the public, to the economy, and to the planet. Without a doubt, the government should ban cigarettes on account of the fact that they are harmful to the economy, to the body, and to the environment. The government should ban cigarettes because they hurt the economy. Essentially, cigarettes rob the economy of wealth. One area where cigarette smoking is costly is health care. Smokers often seek medical care because of the negative effects cigarettes have on the human body. As a result, the government spends a large amount of money treating medical illnesses that are, many times, preventable. In fact, "[s]moking costs the United States approximately $97.2 billion each year in health-care costs and lost productivity" (American Lung Association, "American"). Also, citizens must fund health care costs through tax dollars. A wiser and more productive utilization of tax dollars would be funding for schools. Despite...

Hinduism and the Religion’s Worldviews Essay

Hinduism is not merely a religion, it is also a philosophy and the culture in India, and it has already been a marked part of their everyday living. So much so that everything aspect of their daily lives goes back to it; and it has 950 million followers to wit (mostly from India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Pakistan). Hinduism ranks third as the world’s largest religion after Christianity and Islam, and it is also said to be one of the world’s oldest organized religion along with Judaism (VandeWeghe, 2007). Hinduism and Christianity differ in many ways, and it is rational that there are disagreements and contradictions when two people from different religions involve themselves in a conversation regarding their beliefs. The purpose of this paper is to discover an effective way to build a pleasant relationship with a Hindu in order to be able to share the gospel with them. In order to accomplish this aim, this paper will discuss the origin, beliefs, practices and the views of Hinduism about Christianity and how they differ from the said religion. Hinduism: A Closer Look According to Robinson (2007), besides being called â€Å"Hinduism†, it is also referred to as Sanata Dharma (eternal religion) and Vaidika Dharma (religion of the Vedas). Hinduism has no specific founder and the day that it was born is still unknown; however, there are two theories regarding the origin of the religion. One is the Classical Theory which explains that Hinduism originated at the Indus Valley around 4000BCE to 2200BCE and that its development was due to various foreign invasions particularly of the Indo-Aryan for they are the ones who were said to have brought the religion of Vedism. The other is the Emerging Theory which went against the first theory by proving that there were no foreign invasions along the Indus Valley and that the Vedic religion (Hinduism at 1500BCE to 500BCE) was allowed to flourish by the same group of people who later called themselves Aryan. The Hindu scriptures as well as literatures, which are even older than the Bible’s Old Testament, are the sources of the religion’s beliefs and practices. The most sacred Hindu scriptures are the four Vedas (Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda) which consists of hymns, incantations, rituals and explanations – among which the Rig Veda (1700BCE to 1100BCE) is said to be the oldest. There are also the Upanishads which discussed â€Å"states of consciousness, dreams, meditations, self-realizations and unity†; the Darshanas which consists of six philosophical system and teachings derived from the Vedas; and lastly and the most recent, the Puranas which tells the stories of the most recent gods (Reid & Corduan, 2008). Hinduism also has the two great epics that show the virtues and ideals that are significant to the religion; the first is the Ramayana which is a tale about a prince named Rama and his wife, Sita, and the Mahabarata, a collection of poems which states the duties of a â€Å"religious, law-abiding man† (Mason, 2000). Not only is Hinduism one of the oldest and largest religions, it is also said to be the most complex one (McDowell, 2002). There are various beliefs in Hinduism and one of them is the very popular and highly criticized Caste System which is said to be the cause of inequality and harsh laws in India. There are four main castes; the Brahmin (priest-teachers), kshatriyas (soldier-nobles), vaishyas (merchants) and sudras (servants). In the early periods, it was supposed to be part of the divine order, however, as years passed by, subcastes were developed and there came the outcastes or the untouchables – people who do not belong to any of the four main castes (Perry, 1989). Associated with this system are other beliefs. The belief that each of them have dharma (duty), depending on which caste they were born into; they also believe in karma and samsara (reincarnation) – thus, they believe that if they do their duty properly, they will have good karma and will be reincarnated into a higher class. On the contrary, if they did not, they might be reincarnated to the lower class or even as an animal. Their goal is to achieve moksha (release), which is their concept of salvation. Here they would not be liberated from sin but to life existence itself for they believe that as long as they are in the maya (phenomenal world) suffering would never stop because of karma and samsara. Moksha can be attained in three ways, by â€Å"way of works†, â€Å"way of knowledge† and â€Å"way of devotion† (bhakti) which is the most popular one, in which a person will completely devote himself to a certain god and the latter will take care of everything in his behalf (Reid & Corduan, 2008). In early Hinduism, Jesus Christ has no particular role in the religion and is not even mentioned in their scriptures; however, due to the rise of Christianity, Hindu thinkers thought of a place where they could put Jesus Christ in their religion. According to Reid and Corduan (2008), since Hinduism is a polytheistic religion, the Hindus viewed Jesus Christ as one of the incarnations or avatars of Brahman who, like Rama and Krishna, is a â€Å"divine self-embodiment† in order to preserve Hindu teachings and another way was by saying that Jesus Christ spent his â€Å"silent years† in India to proclaim the teachings of Hinduism. Nevertheless, Hindus’ incorporation of Jesus Christ into their religion does not seem to fit properly. According to McDowell (2002), Hinduism is known to be tolerant towards other religions because of similarities with Hinduism. This is believed to be one of the characteristics of a polytheistic and henotheistic (believing in one god and regarding other gods and goddesses as just manifestations) religions. However, due to rise of a nationalistic political party which took hold of the India’s government, the separation of church and state collapsed and religious tolerance went down as well, increasing anti-Christian violence in the country (Robinson, 2007). Christianity and Hinduism has numerous differences and some of them are the following: Hinduism’s Supreme Being is the Brahman, an indefinable and impersonal deity, while Christianity has a loving, personal and caring Creator. Hinduism looks at man as a materialization of Brahman who has no value and self-worth at all, whereas, Christianity proclaims that man is created in the very image of God that deserves to love and be loved despite their sinful deeds. When it comes to sins, there are no sins that are committed against Brahman, things that were done wrong are taken as results of ignorance that can be redeemed by following the duty of a specific caste to which the person belongs to and the path going to salvation. On the other hand, wrongdoings that are done within Christianity is taken as acts of rebellion against God. Salvation in Hinduism is referred to as moksha and can be attained in three ways which cannot be accomplished in one lifetime, while salvation in the Christian sense is granted by God to those who deserve it after being separated from him. Lastly, even their view of the material world differ – for a Hindu, the material world is an extension of Brahman and just a transitory and secondary importance; on the contrary, Christians see the material world as an objective reality and a something total different from God (McDowell, 2002). However, despite these differences, it is said that Hindus accept Jesus, but not the Christian relgion. In fact, they even refer Christianity to â€Å"Churchianity. † According to Abhedananda (2002), Hindus can tell apart the religion of Jesus Christ from the religion of the Church for the reason that the true religion of Jesus Christ is a religion of the heart. Thus, it has no dogma and no theology, no rituals and ceremonies, and is not based from a book. From their perspective, the religion of the Church is based from a book, is full of creeds and rituals, and even has an organized way of preaching them. When it comes to the Gospels, they see it as full of inconsistencies and discrepancies, and one very doubtful area for the Hindus comes from their awareness that Jesus Christ did not have His own writings and that there are no precise and contemporary accounts of His life inside and outside of the Bible. In order to share the Gospels to the Hindus, Rev. Dharmaraj (2001), gave some advice to approach the Hindus and make them listen to the Gospels. He said that one should determine and understand what type of Hindu community one intends to visit, since there are different sects that belong to Hinduism. Next, he said that one should explain the concepts incorporated in the Gospels in order for them to understand the Gospels for they have their own understanding of God, salvation, sin, among others. Lastly, Christians should deal with the challenges of dogmatism, risks of syncretism and to focus on evangelism. In addition, according to Reid and Corduan (2008), a Christian should connect with the person rather with the person’s religion; Christians should approach them along with humanitarian efforts and outreach projects since Hinduism does not cater to such. Through a combination of these, Hindus have already felt the kind of loving relationships that pay no attention to the caste which have long been abolished but is still being practiced. The salvation of Christianity even reached them in a way, and it even made them accept Jesus Christ more as they felt that they have been freed from the dark aspects of Hinduism. The one who comes from above is above all. The one who is of the earth is earthly and speaks of earthly things. But the one who comes from heaven [is above all]. He testifies to what he has seen and heard, but no one accepts his testimony. Whoever does accept his testimony certifies that God is trustworthy. For the one whom God sent speaks the words of God. He does not ration his gift of the Spirit. The Father loves the Son and has given everything over to him. Whoever believes in the Son has eternal life, but whoever disobeys the Son will not see life, but the wrath of God remains upon him. (John 3:31-36, NAB) In the given Gospel, in order for a Hindu to understand it, one should clarify that the God in the Gospel is the Creator and that His son is Jesus Christ, the Savior of mankind from sins. In addition, it will also be better to give a slight background of what the Gospel is about – say that at this point in the Gospel, the Savior have finally presented Himself in front of the people. The Hindu should also be informed that â€Å"eternal life† is referring to the promised salvation in a Christian context and that it can only be attained by believing in Jesus Christ. On the other hand, the Christian should also point out what â€Å"the wrath of God† means, so that the Hindu could have insights as to the consequences of not obeying their God. And since this pertains to the concept of Hell, it should be also explained again in totality for Hindus do not have this concept in their belief system. Hinduism is a large complex religion that is older than Christianity. If one would be able to understand the essentials of this religion, it would be easy to reach out to the Hindus and make them listen to the Gospel. Christians have their views about Hinduism and Hindus likewise have their own views about Christianity. While they criticize and contradict each other about most of the aspects of their beliefs, setting them aside for awhile in order to learn about one another’s religion makes it possible to establish not just communication but also an open, two-way relationship. To share a Gospel to Hindus, proper understanding of Hinduism is required along with the use of an effective interpersonal approach. References Mason, C. (2000). A short history of Asia – Stone Age to 2000AD. London: Palgrave Macmillan Perry, M. (1989). A history of the world.Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Holy Bible: the new American Bible. (1987). Nashville: Thomas Nelson Abhedananda, S. (2002). Why a Hindu accepts Christ and rejects Churchianity. Retrieved March 31, 2008 from Hinduism website: http://www. hinduism. co. za/jesus. htm Dharmahal, P. (1992). Communicating Christ to the Hindu world. Retrieved April 1, 2008 from Mission Frontiers website: http://www. missionfrontiers. org/1992/0912/sd9211. htm McDowell, J. (2002). A ready defense. Retrieved March 31, 2008 from Jesus Who website: http://www. greatcom. org/resources/areadydefense/ch24/default. htm Reid, P. & Corduan, W. (2008). About Hinduism. Retrieved March 31, 2008 from Christian Answers Network website: http://christiananswers. net/evangelism/beliefs/hinduism. html Robinson, B. A. (2007). Hinduism: the world’s third largest religion. Retrieved March 31, 2008 from Religious Tolerance website: http://www. religioustolerance. org/hinduism. htm VandeWeghe, R. (2007). Prepared to answer. Retrieved March 31, 2008 from Windmill Ministries website: http://www. windmillministries. org/frames/CH30A. htm